Brazil Allows Police to Buy High Caliber Guns Essay

The Brazilian military will now allow police and firefighters to buy powerful .45 caliber guns for personal use, raising fears over how the weapons will be used and where they might end up.Prior to the ruling, only federal police were permitted to buy .45 caliber weapons, while other police agencies carried less lethal .40 or .38 weapons. The new regulations open the way for civil, military, and transport police to purchase .45 handguns. The military command, which regulates gun sales in Brazil, said it changed the regulations in response to petitioning from state security forces. The move has already sparked controversy among some sectors. â€Å"They are giving weapons to the police that they don’t know how to use. This is putting the safety of the police and the population at risk,† a representative from violence prevention NGO Sou da Paz told O Globo. InSight Crime Analysis The decision to grant various police agencies access to more powerful weaponry is likely to prove controversial. Trust in the Brazilian police is low, amid widespread accusations of corruption, criminality and extrajudicial killings. Firefighters, who are allowed to carry weapons as part of the job, have also come under suspicion, with accusations that many form part of urban paramilitary groups while off-duty. The easing of the regulations could be linked to the ongoing conflict between criminal gang the First Capital Command (PCC) and the Sao Paulo police, which claimed the lives of at least 100 officers in 2012. The risk that rather than giving police another means to protect themselves, the increased availability of .45 weapons could only further fuel the conflict. Given past cases of Brazilian police selling weapons to criminal groups, there is a significant risk that these guns could fall into the hands of the gangs that are behind anti-police violence in much of the country. The high-power weapons could also end up being used by the vigilante militias that control many of Brazil’s favelas. Corrupt factions of the police and firefighting force are known to be members and collaborators of these militias.

Miracle on St David’s Day by Gillian Clarke Essay

Miracle on St David’s Day is an enchanting, and ultimately optimistic poem relating to the theme of identity by Gillian Clarke. The poem tells the story of a man in a mental institution, who exceeds the expectation of both the nurses and his fellow patients when he regains the ability to talk. In the first stanza of the poem, Gillian Clarke describes the country house in what seems to be an idyllic setting, â€Å"The sun treads the path among cedars and enormous oaks, it might be a country house, guests strolling†. However despite the seemingly pleasant tone, implied by the use of her making it seem informal, through the relaxed wondering of what the House may have been,† might be a country house, guests strolling†, suggesting normality her use of the word might alerts the reader that this idyllic setting may be an illusion and not what it first seems. The illusion of normality is swiftly extracted by the opening line of the second stanza, â€Å"I am reading poetry to the insane†. This line ends with a certain finality, that is so abrupt that it disturbs the so far, flowing effect to the poem, also implying informality and normality, to the effects that it shocks the reader, not only in the disrupted rhythm of the poem but also in the disturbingly blunt reality of what she is saying. Furthermore this is shocking because it is not commonplace for people to be reading poetry to the insane. Gillian Clarke does this numerous times during the poem in order to stop the reader, so that the poem does not ramble, and make it more interesting, â€Å"A beautiful chestnut-haired boy listens entirely absorbed. A schizophrenic†. This use of contrast between the descriptive lines of the opening stanza and the flat, and remarkably blunt, tones of this line introduce the reader to the contrast between the setting and the guests. As we can observe from the line following, â€Å"I am reading poetry to the insane†, which instantly restores the mood of the poem to informal with the humor, of the old woman who is constantly offering the narrator coal, when it is March and she would have no means of getting coal. By the use of having the woman saying humorous things, Gillian Clarke is also contrasting her with the other patients at the home, as she is the only one who is talking. The poem also uses poetic devises such as personification, â€Å"An afternoon yellow and open mouthed†. It uses metaphors, â€Å"In a cage of first march sun†, and similes such as, â€Å"Outside the daffodils are still as wax†, to make the poem more interesting to read, and also without these techniques the imagery of the poem, that the people in the home are daffodils would not be portrayed and the final message of the poem would not be presented to the reader. Thus the poem would be pointless. Gillian Clarke also uses enjambment in the poem, which disturbs the flow of the poem, and I think is also relating to the disturbed personalities of the patients in the home. Enjambment is effectively used in the third to fourth stanzas, as this is a rambling scene of the immense man struggling to get to his chair, and so Clarke reflects this in the appropriate use of enjambment between the stanzas. The first March sun is described as a cage in the third verse as it is sa ying that for these people who have no freedom, even their enjoyment of the sun is trapping them, and they have no choice but to be out absorbed in it. These poetic devices are also used to build up the character of the man in the poem. In the third stanza where the man is introduced, he is described as a big, mild man, and a laborer, who is being tenderly led. This use of contrasting language informs the reader that even though the man is large in size he has to be tenderly led like a child, continuing to imply to the reader that there is something wrong with him. This is confirmed in the forth verse where he is described as rocking, a common action by insane people as it comforts them. His description is also emphasized by the repetition of the words big, mild and dumb. These words make him seem even more immense, which is odd when they are combined with mild. When the huge laboring man speaks he is in beautiful surroundings reciting a poem about daffodils, which is not only being ironic but is breaking the stereotype of laborers being very masculine and rather insensitive, whereas here he is being portrayed as almost feminine and extremely sensitive. What strikes me most prominently when reading the poem is the amount of imagery used to bring emphasis to the overall meaning of Clarke’s poem and to make it more interesting. She has chosen the â€Å"Daffodils†, by W. Wordsworth, as the music that the mute man chooses to speak after forty years of silence. I believe that she has also chosen to describe the man who cannot speak as mute as it is also a musical term, and so therefore is not just emphasizing that there is no speech in his life, but also that there is no music, relating with happiness and merriment, and therefore is saying that without speech there is no joy in the laborer’s life. However when the rhythm of the poetry he is read awakens him, it appears to turn apparent life into reality. The poem is a possible way to show his waking from a world of misery to a reality of nature’s beauty and rhythm, â€Å"Since the dumbness of misery fell he has remembered there was a music of speech and that once he had something to say.† This is also playing on the word dumbness, as dumbness aside from meaning stupidity also is relating to the man who cannot speak as a person who is mute can also be described as, â€Å"dumb†. Informing us that the poem is saying that music is good, as when he cannot speak, and there is no music, it is described as, â€Å"misery† and when this, â€Å"falls†, and he has remembered that there is something to say a thrush sings, representing happiness, and the once, â€Å"wax† still daffodils are flame, representing excitement, life and activity. Therefore Gillian Clarke is saying that the man was not properly alive until the music in his life was restored. He is reciting poetry because what he has heard from the nurses in the institution has restored his memory and he has remembered a poem that he had learnt as a child at school. We know this because Clarke informs us in verse thirty-one, â€Å"Forty years ago, in a Valleys school, the class recited poetry by rote†. I believe that Gillian Clarke’s poem is also relating to music through this imagery. â€Å"Since the dumbness of misery fell he has remembered there was a music of speech and that once he had something to say.† When he speaks there is an immediate exchange of characteristics, the once lifeless patients are alert and the nurses are frozen as the patients once were. I also notice that in Clarke’s poem the daffodils seem to represent the people at the home. At the start of the poem the daffodils are â€Å"open mouthed† showing the way that the patients don’t react to the poetry, as this is the face that people use when they are bored and not listening. Their open mouths show how unreceptive the patients are, once again removing any sense of normality as Gillian Clarke alienates them from ordinary sane people. When the miracle of the man speaking occurs the flowers are silent and still, showing that far from the boredom and lack of interest displayed before, everyone is amazed. We can deduct that the daffodils are not merely flowers, by the use of lines such as, â€Å"their syllables unspoken†, as obviously, flowers can speak no syllables. I think that the use of the candle related words throughout the poem are deliberate, when the flowers are as still as, â€Å"wax†, the man is not speaking and when he does they are a flame, which is representing that the man’s hope, which has always been there, the wax, but when he speaks it is â€Å"a flame†. It is alive. I think that the, â€Å"first bird of the year in the breaking darkness† is symbolic as the first bird of the year, is representing the first speech in the mans life for many years, and the darkness which is now breaking is the bad times of when he could not speak. His first words in many years are described as a bird, as this also relates to the theme of music. Gillian Clarke effectively alienates the patients in the home and portrays the fact that although they are physically there, they mentally are not by the constant use of word absent, â€Å"I read to their presences, their absences†. St David’s Day by Gillian Clarke illustrates the theme of identity through the use of including people in a mental institution, as they have no identity. Yet after forty years a man’s identity breaks through. I believe that this poem is trying to communicate the fact that everyone has an identity; no matter how masked it is from the rest of the world, and by the use of describing them with flowers that cannot speak (which have inner beauty, she is saying that everyone has some kind of identity and beauty. Emotion plays an important part in the poem humor, misery and shock are shown to us and this makes the poems more realistic. Ultimately I feel the reason this is a very effective poem is that the use of daffodils and Wordsworth is subtle but carries a significant meaning that is backed up by the tone of the rest of the poem. I find that the poem is truly touching and although the main message of the poem is quite discrete, the way that it is portrayed makes it seem that you, the reader are really experiencing the miracle.

Media Influence on Stereotypes

What you see is not always what you get In a society highly influenced by the media, stereotypes are used sometimes in a comedic way. In Harold and Kumar go to White Castle one of the main themes the movie is poking fun at is how stereotypes affect the lives of the two main characters one being of Korean decent and the other Indian. The movie opens introducing the first character Harold. The audience sees that he is an Asian male working in a cubicle for a banking company.The scene turns to Harold’s co-workers who are both white in an office that is nicer and bigger to that of Harold, discussing how they are going to have fun and party for the weekend when one of them has much work to do, so one of them suggests having someone else do it. The scene gives the impression that the two white co-workers are the main characters of the movie as the introductory scene shows primarily the two co-workers and have the most dialogue in the brief intro; however, later the audience will not ice that they are not seen again until the end of the movie.What this scene is shown to do is to make humor out of a normalized stereotype of the Asian American group. As this scene will be analyzed, the normalized stereotypes of Asians in society is highly recognizable in American culture and media, as it negatively privileges the Asian group while obscuring Americans insecurity of their own part in society. In today’s world most people are born with an identity already established for them. Generalized perceptions or a stereotype of a single group has instigated prejudice.With cultural representations already determined by the outside world, many strive to break such representations in order to form their own identity and not what was given to them. It has increasingly more difficult for one to break such representation due to factors in society normalizing these representations with the use of the media. The media has become a powerful tool in promoting such representation of groups. Stereotypes surround the whole world we live in and are unavoidable.No matter what we do, depending on our personality, attire, or even our hairstyle everyone fits into some sort of stereotype even by a little. The definition of a stereotype is a standardized conception or idea of a group of people (Hurst). Even though most stereotypes aren’t true there is a reason why they exist and continue to thrive. Stereotypes have flourished continually as the world has become more and more globalized. Especially in the United States one of the most ethnically diverse countries in the world.As stereotypes exist they have consequently affected the way that a particular individual or group lives in society. One particular representation that will be analyzed is the stereotypes of Asians in popular media, the movie Harold and Kumar go to White Castle and along with my own personal experiences being in the group within Asian Stereotypes will be used to assess the topic. Back at the beginning of this paper an introductory scene was described of the film Harold and Kumar go to White Castle. Even though the scene is only about a few minutes many representations can be noted.The scene implements key normalized stereotypes seen in the public eye. The particular stereotype of Asian group has been connected to the term â€Å"Model Minority† which applies positive traits as a stereotype. The traits include qualities such as being hardworking, intelligent, studious, productive, and also inoffensive people. Also known to increase their social status through merit. The biggest opposition to the view is that it exaggerates the success of Asians. This false empowerment given by the stereotype covers up true problems that are faced by the Asian community.The belief that Asians are harder workers and thus leading to higher earning jobs has led to a more difficult level of climbing the work ladder into higher wage jobs, otherwise known as the glass ceiling phenomen a: The definition â€Å"The Glass Ceiling† refers to an invisible barrier that limits the level to which a woman or another member of a demographic minority can advance within the hierarchy in an organization. It often is a barrier that confronts Ethnic Americans in addition to women when trying to reach upper management levels in many companies (Hester, 2007)Corresponding to the glass ceiling phenomena, the model minority stereotype has been believed to been the cause that Asians must acquire more education and work more hours than their white counterparts to earn the same amount of money. We will go back to the same scene mentioned at the beginning and continue. The scene described before shows Harold the Korean descendent character working tenaciously in his cubicle filling out forms and papers and he is then approached by the two co-workers mentioned earlier that were contemplating how they are going to party over the weekend when they have work to do.Afterwards it shows the two co-workers giving Harold a pile of their papers and folders then persuading Harold to do the work for them with Harold then unenthusiastically accepting the task. Afterwards the scene shows the two co-workers in this short dialogue Co-worker 1: â€Å"Wow! That was amazing; I can’t believe how easy that was† Co-worker 2: â€Å"Dude, how do you think I get all my shit done? Those Asian guys just love crunching numbers. You probably just made his weekend. (Both leave laughing)Then the camera pans over to Harold as he shouts â€Å"Fuck! † The co-workers connect the traits of the stereotype to what they just did and sarcastically believe they did Harold a favor. What can be shown here in relation to the model minority stereotype is that Harold now has to do more work than is required of him for his white counterparts. However doing this extra work will not earn him more money or any merit while his white counterpart will be doing less work and receiving the same credit as Harold is.The dialogue shows that the co-workers jokingly believe they are doing Harold a favor due to his traits which allows him to do such tasks; however, the ending of the scene shows Harold shouting â€Å"Fuck! † which can be seen as epitomizing reaction of Asians frustrations towards how this stereotype has affected them. The scene shows rebellion towards the label of the model minority. This shows that even though the model minority label credits Asians with strong qualities in the end negatively affects them.What does the scene show about the white co-workers? The scene shows the co-workers of Harold irresponsibly passing off their work for someone else to do. This characteristic shows laziness in the white co-workers. This part of the scene was a way to laugh at both Harold and also the two white co-workers. Why was this funny? The thing is that it’s sometimes true that these kinds of situations occur that is where the audience connects the humo r in the situation. The scene reveals an abnormal of how Americans are usually viewed.Americans have been known to be hard workers through fighting for freedom through the revolution to rising to one of the most powerful countries of the 20th century. Time goes on being on top, strong qualities can be seen to be fading away. The polarity is seen as Harold the Korean is hard working while the white co-workers are not. In the scene the white co-workers are laughing away semi-sadistically as they leave the building after taking advantage of their Asian co-worker. The significance of this is that the laughing disguises the white co-workers insecurity of their own work ethic is not as strong.Using the model minority stereotype has in a way been used to exploit as shown in the scene with the white co-workers using the stereotype to use Harold as a work horse. Even though the two white co-workers can’t represent Americans it can represent a whole different stereotype to be uncovered America has had a history in dealing with Asians in the past. Around the 19th century a term known as the â€Å"Yellow Peril† developed as a fear to the increasing number of Asians would immigrate to the United States and would fill the country with foreign culture, speech, and even take away jobs from Americans.The fear that the hard working Asians would take away American’s position in the working world, a satire to the response of that fear is shown in the scene as it shows Harold has been used as a crutch to hold up the co-workers in power. In Amitava Kumar’s Language, a violent example is seen when Kumar describes the murder of Vincent Chin who was murdered by two white autoworkers in Detroit. During so he was called a â€Å"Jap† and told â€Å"It’s because of you motherfuckers that we’re out of work. †(p. 05, Critical Encounters With Text). Chin was murdered due to his ethnic identity which in some correlation was believed to p ut those auto workers out of work. Chin was murdered because in the view of the autoworkers was that he was somehow associated with the ethnic group that had replaced them. It could be that the people who replaced them were more efficient, harder working, or demanded lower wages. Whatever it was, they did not confront the face they themselves had anything to do with the fact they were out of work.Which is something that has become a problem in society is that people blame each other and do not choose to confront how they could have caused a certain event. The model minority stereotype has also affected my life personally being of Korean decent. Being part of the model minority stereotypes has caused to build expectations since we are expected to live up to our peers which fall into that category. In elementary school, I remember asking my teachers for help and noticed some reluctance in doing so. Then I saw my teachers helping other students seeming more inclined to help.This situat ion made it seem to me that I had to work a little harder than my peers in school. In high school, some teachers took personal offence if it seemed as I underperformed on an assignment believing I wasn’t trying or was being lazy. Even though if I tried hard and didn’t do well it was disappointing to see teachers lose faith due to a misinterpretation. All of these things were built upon the general assumptions brought on by the model minority stereotype, has made it so it was abnormal to not follow the trend of such a view.Assumptions are natural impulses that most cannot avoid to do. As human beings no matter what we see, there is some sort of impression that most of us come towards even without knowing the person. Some of these assumptions are guided from varying reasons including friends, family, face, hair, ethnicity, attire, gender, and the media. We analyzed how a particular scene in the film Harold and Kumar go to White Castle exemplifies a generalized assumption . Also a brief personal account on how the stereotype has affected me.Stereotypes create unfairness as it classifies groups based on assumptions. Awareness of the consequences of stereotypes will help the problems associated with it. Stereotypes will continue to die down as long as the world is becoming more and more globalized. So therefore groups and cultures in America will become more connected with each other as time goes on causing familiarity, bringing down assumptions on a group and with this the concept, true equal opportunity will continue to become stronger.Works Cited Jon Hurwitz, Danny Leiner, Hayden Schlossberg . Harold and Kumar go to White Castle. (2001) †¢ Amitava Kumar. â€Å"Language,† by, reprinted from Passport Photos by permission of University of California Press. (2000) †¢ Hurst, Charles E. Social Inequality: Forms, Causes, and Consequences. 6. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc, 2007 †¢ Ruth Hester, published May 21, 2007 http://www. associ atedcontent. com/article/248276/the_glass_ceiling_and_its_effect_on. html? cat=3 †¢ Amy Kashiwabara, 1996 http://www. lib. berkeley. edu/MRC/Amydoc. html

Deerfield Massacre Response Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Deerfield Massacre Response - Assignment Example These are appropriately done to produce the right cue. The lighting technique was appropriate and realistic because, a part from suiting each of the scenes, it managed to manipulate the moods of the audience based on what the actors were doing. In terms of acting, the film featured quite entertaining and comical actors. They were so believable because they were featuring the real traits of the characters. What makes them fulfill their roles is the manner in which they handle themselves. For example, I was so pleased by the manner the actor kept on talking alone and dancing himself to the tunes of his music (Kenneth 39). Besides, the organization of the film enabled the actors to be audible and loud enough to be heard by any audience. I was particularly impressed by the protagonist who thrilled e by comically using gestures, movements and cordially relating with other characters throughout the film. The other important element included in this film is consumes. Each of the actors chose the right and most appropriate costume. Each of these matched their roles, behaviors, characters and personal traits displayed throughout the action. It makes them be as admirable as they comically interact with one another. For example, the protagonist is really entertaining because he behaves weirdly especially when enjoying his music in a lonely room (Kenneth). Thus, I agree that the Drowsy Chaperone is an entertaining film. Its cinematography techniques are

Concept analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Concept analysis - Essay Example However, the concept of ‘caring’ nowadays is confounded by its many uses and descriptions. The objective of this paper is to analyze the concept of ‘caring’ as it relates to the profession of nursing. The concept of ‘caring’ is chosen for the concept analysis because of the current questions about the actual definition and characteristics of ‘caring’. While not everyone is caring, roughly all people would like to be cared about, and when necessary, be cared for. The main concern of ‘caring’ should be revisited. A short time ago, caretakers were horticulturists or gardeners for large manors. Nowadays, the concept is related to care providers, and a great deal of the workforce more and more moving in this path (Phillips & Benner, 1994). The question then is what has been the outcome? On one hand, a lot of women have given up domestic responsibilities, such as sustaining a home for the family or providing care for their children, transferring these special responsibilities to others. The argument is that these women have to find a source of income. In several instances, this is true, but in some cases, employment outside the home is sought for in order to escape domestic obligations (Phillips & Benner, 1994). The information and empirical studies gathered for the literature review were obtained mostly from Questia.com, ProQuest.com, and Medscape. The content of this section was narrowed down to those relevant to the helping professions, such as counseling, teaching, and most importantly, nursing. The concept of ‘caring’ is indefinite and debatable. Part of the dilemma is that the concept has been applied in varied ways that its core meaning is by now endangered. According to some scholars, conceptualizing ‘caring’ entails an effort to encompass the political and social economy within which it is implanted (Halstead & Wagner, 2002). If the concept will be used as a general form of analysis with

Reagan's early life Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Reagan's early life - Essay Example Even nowadays a phenomenon of a successful charismatic leadership of Reagan is of great interest for the society and the world’s society. His communicative leadership skills enabled him to reach success. This was one of the most important factors on the way to his success. This President was sincere and tried to respect anyone. He communicated with people fairly and always talked to them sincerely. He was sure that a successful leader had many opportunities to work at, develop communicative skills, leadership features, and find the best approach to promote his leadership potential. There is a need to support background for leadership features and any individual can become a leader, but there are special techniques to promote leadership features. His first step to success can be found in his â€Å"to think globally and act locally†. He was the author of the phrase that America is a great country and the leader should be focused on the great dreams. Reagan was much focused on promotion of leadership communicative skills among the members of his team. During his communication, Reagan inspired his people to make relevant steps and introduced his creative, innovative and realistic vision in his main goals’ setting and development. Reagan was named â€Å"The Great Communicator†, because he used vivid expressions and always reflected love to his country. He could communicate the most challenging issues to his subordinates in the easiest manner. He was fond of his country and his speeches were always positive and the country was named â€Å"the shining city on the hill† and it was the greatest in the world (For Vision and Leadership; Godspeed to Mr. Reagan, 2004). The essence of liberation and freedom were two main concerns for Reagan, because his country liberated enslaved nations. Reagan did not make an attempt to micromanage his tasks. He tried to be involved in different problems’ solving. He initiated a participatory

Organisation of the body Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Organisation of the body - Essay Example The major functions entail the intensification of DNA in order to facilitate the process of mitosis; it equally assists in the smaller casing of DNA so as to fit in the cell; it also controls replication of DNA and gene expression; it also inhibits the damage of DNA. They are normally reffered to as the cell’s powerhouse due to its ability to perform the role of the cell’s digestive system in which it uptakes nutrients, and synthesizes them into energy through cellular respiration. They function by breaking down cellular debris and waste materials through the action by acids known as hydrolase enzymes. In this regard, the lysosomes digest worn out or excess organelles, bacteria or engulfed viruses and food matter. The red blood cells have a flattened disc like shape or a biconcave shape which increases the surface area over volume ratio.In this regard, the diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen across the plasma of the red blood cells occurs at a faster rate.Moreover, the red blood cells are elastic and flexible thus they are able to fit the small capillaries. In addition, the red blood cells have a thin wall cell to assist in the effortless oxygen diffusion. The red blood cells equally lack cell structures such as ribosomes, mitochondria and nucleus. In this regard, they are able to pack large amounts of hemoglobin due to the increase in space within the cells. The hemogloblin performs the role of taking in oxygen from the lungs and consequently releasing it to the rest of the body. The ciliate epithelial cells have an overlapping and flat structure which facilitates the minimal use of space in the cell. It equally assists in providing a barrier to the exterior. Furthermore, it assists in offering a lightweight skin structure. In addition, it facilitates the shedding of individual cells. The sperm cell is specialized to carry out its function in a variety

An Analysis of Cross-Cultural Communication and Negotiation in the Assignment

An Analysis of Cross-Cultural Communication and Negotiation in the International Management Arena - Assignment Example This move is particularly important because Ashby (2008) advises that â€Å"these unpalatable truths contribute to the increasing problems† facing companies. This is so because even though misconceptions are generally accepted to be falsehood, they at times impact on the lives of natives such that they begin to adapt their ways of life towards them (Osei, 2009). In the first place, it is believed that Nigeria is a country blighted with the problem of political and civil tension, instability and unrest. This is considered as a misconception not necessarily because Nigeria never records any instances of political unrest but that the degree of occurrence might be more than suggested. In a typical example of political tension, â€Å"On 19 October 2010, a militant group threatened to attack political campaign gatherings attended by Nigerian President Goodluck Jonathan† (Australian Department of Affairs, 2011). Such political tensions are believed to impact negatively on busi nesses wishing to start new ventures in the country because investors cannot be fully assured of the defense of the constitution of the country, which protects the investor and other foreigners. This not withstanding, it is important for Fosters to be aware that for the past fifteen (15) years, Nigeria has upheld it national constitution without a coup d’etat that overdraws the constitution (Dawodu, 2007).

Matrix Organisation Structure Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Matrix Organisation Structure - Essay Example Davis and Lawrence (1977) had defined matrix as, ‘any organisation that employs a multiple command system that includes not only a multiple command structure but also related support mechanisms and an associated organisational culture and behaviour patterns’ (qtd. by Miner, 2007; p.254). Such structure is adopted by organisations involved in complex nature of business or operations. For example, armed forces, construction industries, management consulting firms etc adopt matrix organisational structures. Matrix organisational structures are said to have evolved many decades ago; and the most quotable example is the result of President John F Kennedy demand that stated, ‘a man on the moon within ten years’ (Norton, 2007; p.82). As shown in the figure, under each function, managers responsible for various functions simultaneously report to the functional head as well as a project manager. Each project manager is responsible for similar or specific activities c arried out in each function. So, this is two-dimensional role for project managers as well as managers of specific function. It is generally opined that matrix structures are easier to be implemented in smaller organisations, but many large organisations have successfully adopted matrix organisational structures across the globe; few examples include Microsoft, Intel, BMW, Procter & Gamble (Galbraith, 2008). Galbraith asserts that matrix runs on social capital, personal networks and reasonable levels of trust (2008; p.209). Factors that impact success of matrix structure include organisational culture, leadership, communication, planning and coordination, and even HR practices. Huffmire and Holmes (2006) quote Intel as a perfect example stating, ‘Intel has a matrix organisation structure on top of a divisional on top of a functional organisation structure, yet it works, because Intel has a culture of excellent team work (p.64). Secondly, strong leadership at the top of matrix structure is extremely important because the most common issue that surfaces matrix structure include conflicting interests and approaches by equally competent and expert personnel. Leaders should be able to build trust and gain acceptance by all team members. Leaders’ knowledge and expertise are required for providing training and infrastructure to sustain the matrix. Leaders’ role is crucial in managing power distribution and goal and role clarity. Role of communication in matrix structure is at various levels such as formal and informal communication as well as cross-functional coordination. For example, BMW adopts cross-functional career development practices that facilitate movement of people upwards and lateral in order to improve their interpersonal network and informal communication (Galbraith, 2008). From planning and coordination perspective, matrix structures require alignment of goals of different functions with organisational goals. To achieve this, matrix organisations follow a joint goal setting processes and effective joint planning activities. In matrix organisations, all human resource practices foster team working culture, as seen in Goldman Sachs (Galbraith, 2008). Matrix organisation

Exploring the Potential Health Effects of Exposure to Electric and Research Paper

Exploring the Potential Health Effects of Exposure to Electric and Magnetic Fields (EMFs) - Research Paper Example Current appliances like radio and television rely on EMFs for their functioning. EMFs have a substantial technological value. Figure 1. Highest 60 Hz transmission voltage in North America *image taken from Nair (1989, 4) Voltage produces electric fields. Electric fields are greater when the voltage is higher. An electric field can be found in any domestic device that is connected to a source of electricity, although it is not functioning. Magnetic fields are produced by electricity running through a wire. The intensity of magnetic fields amplifies with electricity; hence, an intensified magnetic field can be found near a domestic device that operates on ‘high’ (Kheifets et al., 2006, 1532). An electrical device should be connected to a source of electricity and should be functioning to produce a magnetic field. EMFs are present in all devices that use electricity, like televisions, radios, computers, and other domestic devices. Magnetic fields linked to electrical device s are normally greater than those fields present in close proximity to power lines. Levels of EMF are greater near their source and decrease drastically with distance. This explains why there are greater EMF levels from particular domestic devices than from close by power lines (Al-Khamees, 2008, 730). All the same, most people at present are exposed to EMFs for they arise every time electricity is turned on. Throughout the recent decade, scientific research has expressed concerns about potential detrimental health impacts associated with EMFs. A number of scientists claim that it is not possible for EMFs to have any significant impacts, but others differ. Even so, since electricity is used heavily and broadly and EMF sources are in all places, every individual at present is inescapably exposed to them. Hence, identifying any health or biologic impacts that could be related to EMF exposures is profoundly crucial. It is clearly apparent why a great deal of emphasis has been placed on the likelihood that power-frequency EMFs are linked to negative impacts. Researchers who examine how people react to risk have found out that specific forms of risks draw out more forceful reactions than others. Cancer is one of the health risks that have been linked to exposure to EMFs. Children are found out to be highly vulnerable to leukemia and potential behavioral and reproductive risks (National Research Council, 1997, 17). Sources of the empirically identified EMF risks are mostly inflicted on individuals and are beyond their control. Moreover, the EMFs that are the root of the empirically identified risks are undetectable and strange to many (Office of Technology Assessment, 2002, 1). All such aspects force a lot of people to react with worry and concern to the possible hazards related to exposure to EMFs. When an essential resource like electricity is found out to be linked to detrimental health consequences, it is easy to comprehend why concerns and worries have taken pl ace. It is evident as well that the possible health impacts are simply one aspect of the concern. If tremendous efforts are exerted to lessen power-frequency EMF exposures, a substantial amount of money will have to be used up, such as to remodel domestic devices and residential electrical system, or to cover distribution and transmission lines (Mcmahan, Lutz,

Glaxo Dual Pricing case Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Glaxo Dual Pricing case - Essay Example The legislation determining the price was used to identify the price of the drug. The law in Spain allowed for drug sale at prices determined by Glaxo. Hence, Glaxo sold drugs in Spain at low prices while it raised the prices if the drug was to be resold in a country that would buy at a higher price. In 2001 the Commission made a decision which regarded article 81 was applicable to the medicines that were to be sold and thus, they did not warrant exclusion. Glaxo’s position was that the precise factors that were ongoing at that time in the pharmaceutical trade were supposed to lead to various evaluation of competition in the industry. The precise factors as determined by Glaxo were the impact of parallel trade on medicine consumers, the effect of parallel trade on drug shortages, the effect of price control by European Union member states and the effect of parallel trade on research and development. The attorney general rejected these points of view by Glaxo. They were also nullified by the European Court of Justice. It was stated that the pharmaceutical business was not exempt from the criterion of Competition Law as all industries were under it. Articles 81(1) and 81(3) were of importance to the case. Glaxo noted the importance of price regulation by countries. The fina l judgements of the case were applicable to all undertakings in spite of their sectors (Rey and Venit, 2009). The European Commission has protected and encouraged parallel trade for prescription medicines under its administrative wing. Also, the jurisprudence of the European Court of Justice in relation to competition laws and free trade of goods has resulted in existence of parallel trade for prescription medicines. The pharmaceutical industry depends on its own profits to finance its objectives, hence a reason of encouragement to partake in parallel trade. According to Rey and Venit (2009), variations exist in European Union member countries in terms of their

Juvenile Delinquency Essay Example for Free

Juvenile Delinquency Essay There are numerous theories to why a person becomes who they are and how they got there, what makes it difficult to understand is which correct theory to follow and believe. Listed are a brief analysis of a few theories and two case studies of two troubled youths that will help to open a window to witness what is happening to society’s youth and how they contribute to adulthood. Although, several theories are around regarding juvenile delinquency, tapering them down to one solution is nearly impracticable. Knowing that a theory is simply an educated guess, one can see there is not one single cause for delinquency in society today . However, there are several theories that should be considered and explored. We should make a more in-depth look at figures and determine where crime actually begins. The following are two separate crimes and for many, the correct theories surrounding them. I will explore theories such as the Robert Agnu’s General Strain Theory which suggest that anger, frustration and adverse emotions are linked to negative and destructive relationships. I will also explore Sigmund Freud’s psychodynamic theory which suggests delinquent behavior is a product of abnormal personality structure formed early in life which consciously controls her choices. Juvenile Delinquency I will begin with Lakeisha McCoy a 16 year old girl living in Malvern Arkansas, a rural area in county seat of Hot Springs with the population of 9,021; (Wikipedia 2000) Lakeisha is from a single parent home with her mother and three other your female siblings surviving on the income $ 375 a week and no father figure in the home. Lakeisha’s mother works 40-50 hours per week at the Waffle House and has no daycare for the younger children . Therefore Lakeisha is unsupervised for better part of (6) hours after school due to her mother’s schedule. Lakiesha’s mother has an extensive criminal record possible mental illness, and was a troubled youth. She chooses boyfriends are less than desirable citizens most have little job security as well as drug and alcohol tendencies. Lakiesha was recently arrested for shoplifting at the local dollar store after stealing two pairs of shoes and three shirts. Next subject is Martin, a 14 year old male who lives in Dallas Texas, a large metropolitan city with the population of 1,299,543; (Wikipedia 2008) Martin is from a two parent household with one younger sister living on the annual income of $100,000. 00 a year. Martin’s parents are both employed, however, they work opposite shifts to ensure at least one parent is available for supervision at all times. Both parents keep the children at home after school and they are not involved with any after school or extra family functions. Martin was arrested for breaking and entering into a neighbor’s home during the day when his mother was a doctor’s appointment with his younger sister. What would society believe to be the reasoning behind both Lakeisha and Martins crimes? Some would say â€Å"There just troubled kids† or maybe would say â€Å"It’s because neither had supervision†. However, research and theorists view it in a completely different way. Let’s look at Sigmund Freud’s psychodynamic theory which suggests delinquent behavior is a bi product of abnormal personality structure formed early during the beginning stages of life. This theory would then explain her choices in relationships and how she feels about herself . Example mental torment can lead children into violence and aggression . An neglected child attention from peers will introduce them to a family structure or gang. This theory indicates that children act on unconscious needs and desires. With id, egos ,and super ego functioning together a child can live a normal in the aspects of personality if one becomes dominate then abnormal personality traits can be viewed in a â€Å"God† like complex. (Siegel et al. † 2003). Arousal theorists believe that obtaining thrills is a motivation of committing crimes. They believe children commit crimes like shoplifting for the thrill of possibly getting away with it . They also believe this directly linked environmental and genetic reasons and this group responds to a different brain stimuli. This might indicate that some children need more stimuli to feel comfortable which links higher degrees of excitement . The theories do not stop with just a chemical thrill seeking side of these children; there are a few other facts to consider. (Siegel et al., 2003). Robert Agnu’s General Strain Theory explores the notion that anger, frustration and adverse emotions are directly linked to negative and destructive relationships. Example, Lakeisha’s mother is one with abusive tendencies, she is ridiculed and called names which affects her behaviors both inside and outside the home by harboring a since of fear. Disappointment and anger. This eventually leads to antisocial behavior. He indicates that the negative behavior is linked to a certain peer group which might lead the adolescent to riskier behavior such as drug use. (Siegel et al. , 2003). Also Edwin Sutherland’s differential association theory suggest children exposed to and learn prosocial and antisocial attitudes and behavior ;meaning that the definitions of violating the law outweigh the definitions of being law abiding . Lakeisha’s mother has a long criminal record including , shoplifting , robbery and drug dealing. Since Lakeisha was exposed to this behavior most of her life, she begin to understand the law differently than a child whose parents were law abiding citizens. Terrence Thornberry’s interactional theory suggests most onset of criminal activity is linked to the weakening of social bonds during adolescence; marked by the deterioration of attachments of function within a society. It also believes that seriously delinquent children form a counter cultural belief system that justifies their behavior they interact with peer groups that that reinforce the same type of behavior and beliefs. This reinforces the term â€Å"Birds of a feather flock together† . Together they may look for excitement and engage reckless behavior and by doing so; they will justify their actions by stating â€Å"we have to do something for enjoyment† (Siegel et al, 2002). In Lakeisha’s case all three theories can be tied to her behavior, individual sociological and developmental stages have all been tainted . From birth Lakeisha was statistically predisposed to commit crimes and have a delinquent youth. Today, there are 100,000 children incarcerated throughout the United States and the number in continuing to rise. Studies show that in 19999 there were nearly (2) million juvenile adjudicated in the United States courts. That is an increase of 27% since 1990. The number of drug law violations increased by 168% public order increased by 74% and offenses of a person increased by 55% (Puzzanchera, 1999). Martins’ case is linked more towards the interactional theory and arousal theory than the opposite. His behaviors seem easier to turn towards the positive aspect than the latter. After several years of juvenile justice the general consensus should consider exploring there issues first. look in and around all the theories and perhaps children can avoid obstacles in their way. REFERENCES Foster care and juvenile delinquency (n. d. ) Retrieved July 24, 2010 , from http;// www,ark. edu/psyc112/fostercare/. Pussanchera, C (1999) The national juvenile court data archives. Retrived Oct 19, 2005 from Juvenile Court Statistics Web site: http//www. ncjrs. org/pdffiles I /ojjdp/201141. pdf#search=Juvenile%20statistics Siegel, L (2002) Juvenile delinquency, The Core, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Sigel. J. , Welsh, B, C, Senna, J. J. (2003) Juvenile Delinquency: Theory, practice, and law (8th Ed. ). United States: Thomson Wikipedia (2002). Retrieved July 27, 2010 from the free Encyclopedia Website: Wikipedia (2006) Retrieved July 27, 2010 from The free Encyclopedia Website

Theorieën Motorische Ontwikkeling

Theorieà «n Motorische Ontwikkeling Inleiding Motoriek is heel ruim gezegd, de beweeglijkheid van het lichaam. Om te weten wat er onder de motorische ontwikkeling wordt verstaan zullen wij ons in dit hoofdstuk gaan verdiepen. In dit hoofdstuk worden verschillende theorieà «n over de ontwikkeling van het bewegen en de motorische ontwikkeling beschreven. Enig inzicht in de achtergrond van de motorische ontwikkeling kan ons weer een stapje verder helpen bij het beter observeren en begrijpen van kinderen die zich anders of trager ontwikkelen dan hun leeftijdsgenootjes. De observaties bespreken wij later in hoofdstuk 7 en 8. Hier wordt duidelijk hoe je als leerkracht kunt observeren Hopelijk leidt dit inzicht tot betere antwoorden op het gedrag van deze kinderen, kortom tot beter onderwijs.Daarnaast wordt de globale motorische ontwikkeling van het jongere kind en het oudere kind beschreven. Wat betekent motoriek? De motoriek heeft betrekking op de bewegingen die het lichaam maakt; zoals arm en beenbewegingen. De motoriek bestaat uit een nauwe samenwerking tussen hersenen, spieren en ledematen. Het evenwicht, de ogen, de oren enhet autonome zenuwstelsel zijn er bij betrokken. De grove motoriek wordt als eerst ontwikkeld. Grijpen, rollen, zitten, kruipen, staan, lopen, klimmen en fietsen zijn de bekende ontwikkelingsfasen. Iedere fase van motorische ontwikkeling van een kind is noodzakelijk voor het latere functioneren.De hersenen worden door de motorische ontwikkeling op een bepaalde manier geactiveerd. De hersenen intregeren de motorische handelingen, ook wel automatiseren genoemd. Als dit automatiseren niet ontwikkelt zal een kind altijd de aandacht moeten houden bij de activiteit. Het kind kan dan niet twee dingen tegelijkertijd doen, zoals: fietsen en op het verkeer letten, lopen en praten.Deze sensorische integratie en de automatisering van bewegingen zijn belangrijk om goed te kunnen fun ctioneren. We kennen twee verschillende soorten ontwikkelingen in de motoriek namelijk; de grove motoriek en de fijne motoriek. De grove motoriek zijn alle grote bewegingen die je maakt met je lichaam zoals fietsen, zwaaien of lopen. Bij de fijne motoriek hebben we het over de kleine bewegingen die je bijvoorbeeld met je hand of vingers maakt zoals; schrijven of tekenen. Een voorbeeld van de grove motoriek wanneer deze niet goed ontwikkeld is zou kunnen zijn dat je vaak omvalt of tegen obstakels oploopt, bij de fijne motoriek zou het kunnen zijn dat je moeite hebt om dingen te kunnen oprapen. We kunnen dus wel zeggen dat alleen met een goede motoriekje gecontroleerde bewegingen kunt maken. (http://www.motoriekoefeningen.mysites.nl/mypages/motoriekoefeningen/107693.html) Het verloop van motorische ontwikkeling van het kind Het verloop van de motorische ontwikkeling begint tijdens het eerste levensjaar, daarom wordt in deze paragraaf naast de ontwikkeling van het schoolkind ook de ontwikkeling van babys peuters en kleuters besproken. Hierna wordt door middel van een overzicht, duidelijk welke ontwikkelingen een kind doormaakt per levensjaar. Tijdens het eerste levensjaar van een kind gebeurt er veel op motorisch gebied. Een pasgeboren baby doet veel vanuit reflexen. Zo heeft hij een sterke grijpreflex en een zuigreflex. Al snel gaat het kind bewuster grijpen, draaien, weer later gaat het zitten, etc. In eerste instantie gebeurt dit vanuit een aangeboren drang. Als voorbeeld nemen we het rollen. Eerst rolt een kind vanuit een innerlijke drang. Soms is dit helemaal niet handig, als bijvoorbeeld de nek nog niet zo getraind is, en hij dus steeds met zijn neus op het boxkleed ligt. Terug rollen leert een kind pas wat later, ook heel lastig als je moe wordt van je hoofd alsmaar omhoog houden. Naarmate het kind vaker rolt, wordt het kind er steeds behendiger in. Het kind ontdekt dat het dan ergens dichterbij komt. Weer later leert een baby dat hij dus al rollend ergens naar toe kan gaan, dat hij dus het rollen zelf in kan zetten als hij bijvoorbeeld een speeltje wil hebben dat net buiten handbereik ligt. Het karakter van het ki nd heeft grote invloed op het tempo van zijn ontwikkeling. Het ene kind is banger cq voorzichtiger uitgevallen dan het andere kind. Gelukkig gaat ieder kind uiteindelijk toch draaien of lopen. Dreumesen en peuters zijn dol op helpen bij huishoudelijke taken. Afwassen, schoonmaken, vegen, opruimen. Als ze willen, mogen ze helpen. Slepen met de stoeltjes, het fornuisje en het poppenbedje. Hierdoor wordt de motorische ontwikkeling op allerlei manieren gestimuleerd. De fijne motoriek door puzzelen, kleien, tekenen, schilderen, plakken, bellen blazen etc. De grove motoriek door verkleden, met zn allen stoeien op de matras, buiten spelen in de zandbak, fietsen, rennen, etc. Buiten spelen biedt hierbij vele mogelijkheden. Het leren inschatten van gevaar leren kinderen pas rond de leeftijd van vier jaar. Tot die tijd kunnen ze meestal niet voldoende inschatten wat ze wel en niet kunnen. Peuters hebben de drang in zich om te klimmen. Zij kijken anders tegen de wereld aan dan volwassenen. Als zij een bank zien, daagt dat uit tot klimmen, en hetzelfde geldt voor een vensterbank, een biels en een tuinstoel. De spierkracht neemt in een jaar tijd enorm toe. Bij het schoolgaande kind wor dt de motoriek steeds verfijnder en verder uitgewerkt. De kinderen oefenen al snel hun jas dicht maken, hun veters strikken, tanden poetsen, huppelen, klimrekkeren, steppen enz. Door knutselen en spelen met lego en andere bouwmaterialen wordt de fijne motoriek geoefend. Door timmeren leer je je krachten te bundelen en te gebruiken. Door de vele oefening in de motoriek kunnen de kinderen veel beter hun handen afzonderlijk van elkaar gebruik. De kinderen gaan steeds netter schrijven en gaan hiermee ontdekken. Zo zie je aan het eind van de basisschool periode steeds meer verschillende vormen in handschriften. Daarnaast neemt het uithoudingsvermogen toe doordat kinderen continu in beweging is. Hierdoor wordt ook de motorische ontwikkeling steeds nauwkeuriger, kinderen maken tijdens hun beweging, fijnere en kleinere bewegingen. Doordat de oudere basisschool kinderen erg competief zijn in sportactiviteiten leren de kinderen steeds meer te ontdekken. Ook dit is weer positief voor hun motor ische ontwikkeling, omdat zij bewegingen maken waarbij de motoriek centraal staat, zoals voetbal, klimmen etc. Concreet overzicht motorische ontwikkeling tot 12 jaar 0 tot 4 jaar; Zelf bij babys zie je al heel snel dat er een motorische ontwikkeling plaats vindt. Wanneer babys geboren worden zullen zij al snel knipperen met hun ogen en zuigen zij direct. Wanneer de babys wat ouder zijn zullen zij objecten gaan volgen met de ogen, dit voorwerp moet echter wel groot zijn. Rond 8 maanden leren de babys met hun handen te klappen en worden de oogbewegingen nauwkeuriger. De babys kunnen dan een klein voorwerp met hun ogen volgen. Vanaf 1 jaar gaan de kinderen o.a. zitten, kruipen, oppakken en stapelen. De motorische ontwikkeling wordt steeds verder ontwikkeld. Om deze ontwikkeling mogelijk te kunnen maken groeit het lichaam gelijdelijk en neem de spierkracht toe. Vanaf 2 jaar kunnen de kinderen al wat tekenen zoals een herkenbaar menselijk figuur. Vanaf 3 jaar ontwikkelen de kinderen hun motoriek ook door middel van bewegingesspelletjes, door bijvoorbeeld te schommelen, springen, ballen en/of stoeien. (http://mens-en-gezondheid.infonu.nl/kinderen/26174 -motorische-ontwikkeling-wat-kan-n-kind-op-welke-leeftijd.html) 4 tot 6 jaar; De motoriek wordt steeds beter bij de jonge kleuter. De jonge kleuter krijgt meer controle over de bewegingen die hij maakt. De pols en de vingers maken steeds meer nauwkeurige bewegingen. Jonge kinderen hebben een de drang om te spelen en te bewegen, om dit te kunnen doen hebben zij ruimte nodig zoals bij het spel; hinkelen of op à ©Ãƒ ©n been staan. De fijne motoriek verbeterd, en de jonge kinderen leren allerlei oefeningen om de fijne motoriek te stimuleren zoals binnen de lijntjes kleuren en de knopen dicht maken. Maar ook de grove motoriek wordt steeds beter, het kind kan nu beter met een bal overweg en valt niet meer of minder tijdens het rennen. Rond 5 jaar kunnen de kinderen al hun potlood vast houden en worden de eerste letters en woorden geschreven. Vanaf 6 jaar is het evenwichtsgevoel voortdurend in ontwikkeling en leert het kind bijvoorbeeld touwspringen. (http://mens-en-gezondheid.infonu.nl/kinderen/26174-motorische-ontwikkeling-wat-kan-n-kind-op-welke-lee ftijd.html) 6 tot 9 jaar; Vanaf 6 tot 9 jaar wordt de motoriek, de evenwicht en de coà ¶rdinatie beter. Dee handen kunnen nu afzonderlijk van elkaar worden gebruikt. Doordat de kinderen zoveel bewegen wordt de fijne motoriek nauwkeuriger en de uithoudingsvermogen en behendigheid nemen toe. (zie schema motorische vaardigheidslijnen Bijlage 1) 9 tot 12 jaar; Vanaf 9 tot 12 jaar is het coà ¶rdinatievermogen goed en het uithoudingsvermogen is groter. Dit betekent dus dat ze langer dingen vol kunnen houden. Daarnaast leren de kinderen onderscheid te maken tussen kinderen onderling; het ene kind kan meer dan het andere kind. Hierdoor onstaat er een competitie-element en krijgen de kinderen belangstelling voor sport en wedstrijden. De kinderen koppelen de vaardigheden aan dat de sociale status; zo vinden zij bijvoorbeeld dat behendige kinderen populairder zijn. (zie schema motorische vaardigheidslijnen Bijlage 1) Theorieà «n motorische ontwikkeling Over de motorische ontwikkeling zijn veel verschillende theorià «n. Om een goed beeld te krijgen op de motorische ontwikkeling hebben wij de 3 bekendste uitgelicht, namelijk; Het (neurologisch) ontwikkelingsmodel van Mesker (hfst 1.5) De senso-motorische ontwikkeling van Ayres (hfst 1.6) De ontwikkelingslijnen van Gesel (hfst 1.7) In de volgende paragrafen worden de hierboven genoemde 3 theorià «n toegelicht, waarna wij een conclusie zullen trekken over welke theorie of theorieà «n het meest bruikbaar is/zijn voor ons onderzoek en dan met name voor het te ontwikkelen beroepsproduct; Uitgangspunt blijft hierbij onze onderzoeksvraag; Hoe kan de motorische achterstand van kinderen met schrijfproblemen op de Dialoog worden verkleind? Het neurologische ontwikkelingsmodel van Mesker Mesker gelooft in de relatie tussen de lichamelijke ontwikkeling en de hersenen. Als het zenuwstelsel rijpt verandert ook het bewegingsapparaat. Mesker heeft meerdere dingen uitgevonden onder andere: rechtopstaand schoolbordje psycho-dominantiebord Een kind maakt met beide handen patronen op het bord, veelal ritmisch en met ondersteuning met klanken of woorden (schrijfdans). Dit wordt veel gebruikt door remedial teachers om gelijktijdige bewegingen met de linker- en de rechterhand/kant bij kinderen te verbeteren. Het wordt ook gebruikt bij handschrift verbetering en als remedie bij dyslexie. Hieronder worden de 4 verschillende fasen van Mesker beschreven. Het is handig voor leerkrachten om deze te herkennen. Het geeft een leerkracht de mogelijkheid om te kunnen zien hoe de motorische ontwikkeling van kinderen loopt, zodat men meer begrip krijgt over achterstanden in de totale ontwikkeling van het kind. De antagonistische (tegengestelde) fase of slurffase (tot 4 jaar) In de eerste fase van de motorische ontwikkeling verlopen de meeste bewegingen via een links-rechtsantagonisme. Dit houdt in dat de spierwerking in de ene lichaamhelft antagonistisch is aan die van de andere helft. Het werkt dus tegenovergesteld. Als de ene hand ontspant, spant de andere kant. Als een hand knijpt, spreidt de andere hand zich. Deze tegenbewegingen worden synkinesieà «n(tegenbewegingen) genoemd en zijn dwangmatig. Een impuls in de linkerhersenhelft wordt automatisch doorgegeven als tegenbeweging in de rechter hersenhelft. Slurfbeweging/slurfmotoriek Afgeleid van de slurf van een olifant. Ook wel actie-reactie bewegingen genoemd. In deze fasen zijn twee typen bewegingen. Kinderen leren tegenovergestelde (antogonistische) bewegingen te maken, bijvoorbeeld trappelen. Ook laten kinderen in deze fase tegenbewegingen (synkinesieà «n) zien, zo zal een baby van 6 maanden een vuist maken, terwijl hij zijn andere hand strekt. Voorbeelden van deze fase: ontwikkeling van trappelen, kruipen, lopen Opvallend is dat veel kinderen die niet hebben gekropen motorische problemen hebben. de symmetrische fase of motorische fase (4 6 jaar) Deze fase houdt in dat de hersens- en lichaamsactiviteiten in deze fasen links en rechts identiek zijn, symmetrisch. Ook in deze fase zijn 2 soorten bewegingen. Een kind leert in deze fase veel symmetrische bewegingen. Deze bewegingen zijn identiek (gespiegeld) in de linker- en rechter lichaamshelft en/of identiek in het boven- en onderlichaam. Voorbeelden van deze fase: met twee benen tegelijk springen, maken van een rechte koprol (3,5 jaar) met twee handen een bal vangen. recht zitten, staan Aan de andere kant is het nog niet goed mogelijk om een lichaamshelft te bewegen zonder dat de andere (dwangmatig) meebeweegt. Ook deze meebewegingen worden synkinesieà «n genoemd. Synkinesieà «n worden ook wel neurologische associaties genoemd. Bijvoorbeeld: als een kind op zijn hakken loopt, doen zijn polsen en armen mee; die gaan buigen (synkinesieà «n onder/boven) Als een kind de symmetrische fase goed heeft doorlopen dan: laat het kind geen onnodige symmetrische bewegingen zien beheerst het kind de essentià «le symmetrische bewegingsvormen Ook volwassen laten meebewegingen zien en/of nieuwe bewegingen. Het gaat bij kinderen om het laten zien van mee-bewegingen bij alledaagse, eenvoudige bewegingen. Lateralisatie fase (7 jaar) Dit is de fase waarin er verschillen ontstaan tussen de linker- en rechter hersenhelft en daardoor in de linker- en rechterlichaamshelft. Er is een aansturing vanuit het hersenhelft zonder dat de ander meedoet. Hierdoor is het mogelijk verschillende bewegingen van de verschillende lichaamsdelen onafhankelijk van elkaar te laten plaatsvinden. Gekoppelde of associeerde bewegingen vinden plaats in de antagonistische en de symmetrische fase. Losgekoppelde of gedissocieerde bewegen worden mogelijk in de lateralisatie fase. Dissociatie: het tegenovergestelde van associatie, betekent letterlijk: loskoppelen. Voorbeelden van dissociatieve bewegingen: De schoolslag wordt mogelijk, Armen en benen maken na elkaar een andere beweging. Touwtje springen wordt mogelijk; draaien en springen tegelijk. In de lateralisatie ontwikkelt een lichaamshelft zich meer doelgericht. De andere lichaamshelft werkt meer ondersteunend. Dit kan men zien bij de handen en voeten. De schrijfhand en de steunhand en het schietbeen en steunbeen. Lateralisatie is geen ontwikkeling tot eenhandigheid, maar een ontwikkeling tot een consequente taakverdeling en samenwerking in tweehandigheid. dominantie; einde lateralisatie fase(7-8 jaar) Deze fase is het eindproduct van de neurologische motorische ontwikking. De mogelijk bestaat om verschillende lichaamsdelen te laten samenwerken en er is geen sprake van dwangmatig neurologische synkinisieen (bepaalde lichaamsdelen werken niet meer automatisch en symmetrisch mee) bij veel gebruikte dagelijkse bewegingen. Voorbeelden: Het schoppen tegen een bal: Het standbeen moet het lichaam in balans houden terwijl het schopbeen half gebogen in beweging vaart maakt om tegen de bal te schieten. Het schrijven: Een voorkeurshand, waarbij tegelijkertijd meerdere motorische handelingen plaatsvinden. (de schrijfbewegingen vanuit het soepele polsgewricht worden gemaakt met voldoende steun vanuit het lichaam en met stabiele houding.) Voor de gehele paragraaf; Zorg voor beweging, W. van Gelder, M. Berg (1999). Heeswijk-Dinther: Esstede (blz.24-32) Schrijven met zorg, A. van Vledder en E. van Dijk (2000). Baarn:HB Uitgevers (blz. 95-98) Schrijven als een oefenvak, Handboek voor didactiek en praktijk, Drs.A. van Engen. (7e druk 1998). Vries: Van Engen BV.(blz. 30-38) Het neurologische ontwikkelingsmodel van Ayres Theorieà «n motorische ontwikkeling. Enig inzicht in de achtergrond van de motorische ontwikkeling kan men weer een stapje verder helpen bij het beter observeren en begrijpen van kinderen die zich anders of trager ontwikkelen dan hun leeftijdgenootjes. Hopelijk leidt dit inzicht tot betere antwoorden op het gedrag van deze kinderen, kortom tot beter onderwijs. De sensomotorische ontwikkeling van Ayres Motoriek heeft te maken met bewegen. Het woord  ´senso ´ is veel minder bekend. Het woord  ´senso ´ verwijst naar de zintuigen. Een vertaling van sensomotorische ontwikkeling zou kunnen zijn: De ontwikkeling van de samenwerking van de zintuigen en motoriek. De ontwikkeling van de interactie tussen zintuigen en bewegingsapparaat. Van belang bij de sensomotorische ontwikkeling is de sensorische integratie: een samenwerking tussen de zintuigen en de motoriek. Bijvoorbeeld: Oorzaak gevolg : als iemand zijn hand op een hete plaat legt dan trekt hij zijn hand weg. Actie- reactie : als iemand op zijn schouder wordt getikt dan kijkt hij om, zonder na te denken waar de prikkel vandaan komt. Ayres onderscheidt 5 zintuigelijke systemen: Het auditieve systeem: horen. Het vestibulaire systeem: dit systeem zorg dat men in evenwicht blijft en niet omvalt. Het visuele systeem: zien. Het proprioceptieve: geeft informatie door vanuit spieren en gewrichten en geeft men daarmee informatie over de houding en positie van lichaamsdelen. Via dit systeem voel men hoe hard/zacht, groot/klein men moet bewegen. Het tactiele systeem: (de tastzin) geeft informatie over allerlei aanrakingen van de huid. Een goed proprioceptief en het tactiel systeem zorgen voor bewegingsgevoel: balgevoel, mooie gestileerde bewegingen, kleine bewegingen, etc. Als verwerkingsprobleem van de informatie van de verschillende zintuigen noemt Ayres met name het over- of ondergevoeligheid van een systeem. Hier volgen 2 voorbeelden. Voorbeeld 1: Een vestibulaire overgevoelig kind zal bijvoorbeeld snel duizelig zijn. Bij een koprol of in een attractie op de kermis, vaak ook misselijk in de auto. Het systeem raakt snel overprikkeld. Veel van deze kinderen worden voorzichtig. Als het vestibulaire systeem ondergevoelig is, is voor een kind niets te gek. Hij kent zijn eigen grenzen niet. Botst snel, loopt in de rij tegen andere kinderen op, is vaak overmoedig. Een kind wijzen op zijn gedrag met als bedoeling dat dit gedrag veranderd, heeft zelden het gewenste effect. De kans is groot dat deze goedbedoelde aanwijzingen ten koste gaan van het gevoel van eigen waarde van het kind. Voorbeeld 2: Tactiel overgevoelige kinderen houden niet van vieze handen en bijvoorbeeld van stukjes of brokjes in het eten en -in extreme gevallen- zelf niet van kleren aan hun lijf. Het neurologische ontwikkelingsmodel van Gesell De ontwikkelingslijnen van Gesell Gesell beschreef als eerste een systematiek in de ontwikkeling van het kind. Hij onderscheidt de volgende ontwikkelingsvelden: Adaptatie: toepassing van de motoriek in het dagelijkse leven en spel. Klein motorische ontwikkeling: ontwikkeling van kijken tot grijpen en manipuleren. Grootmotorische ontwikkeling: ontwikkeling van hoofdbalans tot lopen. Spraak- en taalontwikkeling: ontwikkeling van communicatieve vaardigheden. Deze velden zijn al aanwezig voor de geboorte. De ontwikkeling wordt vastgelegd en normatieve ontwikkelingsschalen. Genoemd de key ages oftewel sleutelleeftijden, de momenten waarop een mijlpaal wordt bereikt in de ontwikkeling. Adaptatie is het belangrijkste ontwikkelingsveld. Het kind leert door zijn adaptieve gedrag analyseren, integreren en relaties herkennen. Gesell beschouwde adaptatie als de voorloper van de (latere) intelligentie, waarbij eerdere opgedane ervaringen gebruikt worden bij het oplossen van problemen. De vier ontwikkelingslijnen van Gesell met betrekking tot de motorische ontwikkeling: De ontwikkeling van kop naar voet (evenwicht) Een kind dat net geboren is kan op een gegeven moment zijn hoofd rechtop of omhoog (balanceren) houden. Daarna gaat het, als het ongeveer 6 maanden is, zitten (evenwicht in hoofd en romp), vervolgens kruipen (evenwicht in schouders en heupen) en tenslotte staan (evenwicht ook in voeten). Kinderen met een zwak ontwikkeld evenwicht laten vaak zien dat ze een wiebelend los hoofd hebben en/of veel gecorrigeerde bewegingen met de armen maken. In het algemeen leren deze kinderen laat zitten. Niet of laat kruipen en laat fietsen op een fiets zonder zijwielen. De ontwikkeling van binnen (romp) naar buiten (ledematen) De ontwikkeling van binnen naar buiten is een ontwikkeling vanuit de romp via de gewrichten die het dichtst bij de romp zitten (schouders en heupen) steeds meer naar buiten, tot in de vinger en teentoppen. Bijvoorbeeld: Een kind van 3 jaar draait een touwtje rond dat het met à ©Ãƒ ©n hand vasthoud. Hij maakt een hele grote draaibeweging vanuit de schouder. Een kind van 6 jaar zal bij dezelfde beweging slecht de hand/pols bewegen. In het onderwijs gaat men ervan uit dat op ongeveer 6 jarige leeftijd de sturing in de pols en hand plaatsvindt. Er dan met het schrijfproces gestart. Voor veel kinderen kan dit tot frustraties leiden, omdat de basis voorwaarden om tot schrijven te komen nog niet aanwezig zijn. Éà ©n van deze voorwaarden is een voltooide ontwikkeling van binnen naar buiten. De ontwikkeling van enkelvoudige naar samengestelde beweging Het aanleren van een beweging vindt plaats van enkelvoudig naar samengesteld. We kunnen deze volgorde het best voorstellen bij het aanleren van een dansje. Er wordt bijvoorbeeld eerst een (eenvoudige) beenbeweging geleerd. Als deze bewegingen worden beheerst, dan kan men een armbeweging bijmaken. Hierna volgt het hoofd, de mimiek en eventueel kan erbij worden gezongen. Het geheel is samengesteld uit steeds meer componenten. De hoeveelheid componenten die men tegelijkertijd kan uitvoeren is afhankelijk van aanleg en ervaring. Een voorbeeld van een samengestelde beweging is; Stuiten op de plaats naar dribbelen (stuiten en looppas). Voor een groot deel valt deze ontwikkeling samen met de lateralisatiefase van Mesker. In deze fase wordt het mogelijk op verschillende lichaamsdelen onafhankelijk van elkaar te gebruiken. De ontwikkeling van totaal (massaal) bewegen naar lokaal (effectief) bewegen. Het bewegen van jonge kinderen met name babys, kenmerk zich door de totaliteit van de beweging. Als een baby probeert iets aan te raken boven zijn wieg, doen de andere arm, de benen en mimiek mee. Het in zijn totaliteit bewegen gaat geleidelijk over in meer lokaal bewegen. Alleen het lichaamsdeel dat nodig is beweegt. Zo kan een 8 jarige zittend schrijven zonder dat iets anders beweegt dan zijn hand (onderarm) en zijn pen. Voor de meeste 4 jarigen is dat onmogelijk. Voetenschuiven, spanning in de schouder en een meebewegende andere hand zijn vaak te zien. In de theorie van Mesker is deze ontwikkeling te zien in het optreden van synkinesieà «n. Van tegenbewegingen naar meebewegingen naar spanning in de andere lichaamshelft tot ontspanning. In de laatste fase zou je ook kunnen spreken van lokaal, efficià «nt bewegen. Een voorbeeld van massaal naar lokaal: Een peuter van 2 jaar die een bal weggooit, gooit met zijn hele lichaam. Als kinderen 8 jaar zijn, gooien ze een bal door met twee handen een korte beweging te maken, waarna de handennawijzen. Zorg voor beweging, W. van Gelder, M. Berg (1999). Heeswijk-Dinther: Esstede (blz. 24-33) Samenvatting De motoriek heeft betrekking op bewegingen van het lichaam, zoals arm en beenbewegingen Er wordt over 2 soorten motoriek gesproken, namelijk de grove en de fijne motoriek. Bij de grove motoriek, gaat het om de grote, grove bewegingen die je met je lijf maakt. De fijne motoriek zijn meer de kleinere bewegingen die je met je handen en vingers maakt. Over de motorische ontwikkeling zijn veel vesrschillende theorieà «n; namelijk; Het (neurologisch) ontwikkelingsmodel van Mesker De senso-motorische ontwikkeling van Ayres De ontwikkelingslijnen van Gesel Volgens Mesker verloopt de ontwikkeling van de motoriek via een aantal fasen. Bovendien kan men in de schema Motorische Basisvaardigheden aflezen wat een kind op een bepaalde leeftijd zou moeten beheersen. Volgens Ayres heeft de motoriek te maken met bewegen en kijkt vanuit de sensomotorische ontwikkeling. Het woord  ´senso ´ verwijst naar de zintuigen. Een vertaling van sensomotorische ontwikkeling zou kunnen zijn: De ontwikkeling van de samenwerking van de zintuigen en motoriek. De ontwikkeling van de interactie tussen zintuigen en bewegingsapparaat. Gesell beschreef als eerste een systematiek in de ontwikkeling van het kind. Hij onderscheidt de volgende ontwikkelingsvelden: Adaptatie: toepassing van de motoriek in het dagelijkse leven en spel. Klein motorische ontwikkeling: ontwikkeling van kijken tot grijpen en manipuleren. Grootmotorische ontwikkeling: ontwikkeling van hoofdbalans tot lopen. Spraak- en taalontwikkeling: ontwikkeling van communicatieve vaardigheden. Nu er een duidelijkbeeld is gegeven over het verloop van een normale motorische ontwikkeling, zal er worden gekeken naar wanneer de motorische ontwikkeling niet soepel verloopt; waarbij wij ons afvragen welke kenmerken een motorische achterstand heeft.

Contemporary Theories of Crime

Contemporary Theories of Crime According to the history and development of the criminological theory, the knowledge of crime theory has a tendency to include the past criminological theory that has been developed before. For example the labeling theory has a great influence from Chicago school, Durkheim theory and concepts, and symbolic interactionism (Plummer) Theory has the particularity of being the subject of constant renewal, like most of the knowledge in our society. One way of expressing this characteristic is by Thomas Kuhn in his book: structure of scientific revolutions. What he express in his theory is how the knowledge considered as â€Å"normal science†, is in a continuum spiral, according to how theory explains reality inside the framework of paradigms. Once these paradigms reach a point in which they cannot explain reality, normal science reach the point of a crisis. To explain this crisis the paradigms of the normal science must change, summarizing what is usable by the anterior normal scien ce and adding the new knowledge in form of paradigms that explains reality (Kuhn). This is exactly what happens with criminological theory, but still, besides all the progress theory has done, crime is still something hard to attach to a whole theory, and the combination of theory perspectives seems to be the most viable way to express the phenomenon of crime. On the contemporary criminological theory, one the perspectives that has a good approach to the actual context of crime is labeling theory. The labeling theory refers to the attachment of labels to a specific person in society according to the role he has on it. For example someone who commits a crime is recognized by the group of people around him as a criminal. But is not only the person who commits a crime, someone who is accused of committing a crime, doesn’t necessarily have committed that crime, but still he gets the label. Labeling theory refers to the identity that other people confer to one person. This identity is expressed as a label. The labels are stigmas inside society[1] that people must carry. This leads to the other part of the theory. Labeling theory, besides confer a stigma to the members of a society, also tries to explain another aspect of criminological behavior by opening the possibility of change in criminal behavior[2]. The stigma is hard to remove, but this theory proposes a way of reintegrating the members considered abnormal[3]: shaming is the process in which the person submit himself to a treatment or circumstance in which he resigns socially to crime, allowing him to reintegrate to society as a normal subject. The support of this theory is that bring an enormous quantity of material observation in other aspects of society, providing and using the concepts that society uses to determine the subjects inside it. For example the use of labels that are not only related to crime. Another contemporary theory with a wide perspective and more accurately related to actual crime is the environmental theory. This theory has a very situational approach to crime, because it is based on the characteristics that a special place must have for crime to be something executed. Crime occurs within the intersection of a space, time, a motivated offender, an attractive target, and lack of guardianship (Francis T. Cullen). The approach of this situational context has also the inclusion into theory of the daily activities of society, demarking the situation and the possibility of decrease crime by nullifying the situations in which crime can be committed, according to the routine people has. This theory has an opening to set crime as something different from the theories used before the 60’s. The possibility of seeing crime as something that may happen in every context, changes the relations of a stigmatized person to a situational expression of crime. Crime becomes the main subject of study, not the context[4] or the person who commit crime. When in this theory it is said that the focus is on crime, still a lot of concepts and ideas are part of the theory. For instance, the influences of Chicago school of mapping and characterizing crime zones. One contemporary expression of the applications of this theory is the broken windows theory[5]. The third analyzed theory in this text is the Developmental theory. This theory proposes the approach on how crime is explained by the whole history of one subject, group, and society. Crime is attached to every life expression that has happened since birth. Having a research of the main aspects of one person’s life, the individual expression and social values get mixed as the theoretical approach explains crime. This mixture of social and individual behavior is what allows this theory to be one of the most wider and contemporary (Paris). This theory is most applied to young people[6] and it takes into account the perception of the people who commits crime and the people who are victims of a crime. As other contemporary theories, there is possibility of change in the criminological behavior, allowing the criminal to be a normal individual. Some authors explain three ways in which this theory is applied to specific situations. The first one is the continuity of behavior in life course. The second one is that life course behavior might change or continue during time and on its characteristics. And the third one is that the life course behavior continues and changes. This theory is a multiple perspective to analyze crime, by studying the things to take into account to set an idea of how crime develops inside society by the life course of individuals, making a reciprocal analysis of the individuality and collectivity. All together These three theories provide a wide range of analysis, if the three of them are put together there are a lot of factor that would be covered by these theories. Still is not like just mixing the three theories. Each theory has a valid point and perspective to take into account. For example, the developmental theory takes into account the life course, which is an abstraction of the material and real life of the people. It is really a manifestation of the influence of all the material aspects under the mirror of time. This approach is quite accurate to study specific phenomenon because the analysis is deeper in context and it show the influences of society altogether with the individual tendencies. The approach of this theory at certain ages is what restrains this theory to be used. Because of its focuses on age, their analysis perspective loses weight when it is tried to be used in studying different groups, and in the theory itself. This loss of weight is because one of the main cores of this theory is the social development related to biological development. One of the tendencies of these three theories is to provide an option to explain how crime can be changed. Proposing a solution, like the shaming theory[7], or proposing new safety procedures to secure the environment. All these three theories keep the opportunity of becoming a normal[8] citizen or member of a society. Still, besides of the solutions proposed, the praxis of a theory can be very different from what the expectations are. One of the characteristics of these theories, is that are short in context matters. This means that theoretical explanations are only based as maximum to a nation level[9], provoking that many of the structural and contextual representations in politics, economics, culture, education, etc., in the world, cannot be part of the theoretical analysis. But still these representations have their manifestations even in small communities. This is impossible to not take into account macro-tendencies, but it is possible just to focus in micro-tendencies, even if this does not explain a complete context. Labeling theory, as the developmental theory, is not a completely sentence of explanation, but the analysis perspective that is valuable of this perspective is precisely the idea of a label. With the consent or without it, people always make judgments and make labels to identify other people, and to be identified among society as an individual. What criminological theory does is to focus on the labels related to crime. This is a much attached way in which theory explains reality with constructions of reality from society. One of the characteristics of this theory is also that label is just a value granted for the people participant in society, and because of that, according to the social capital[10] and possibilities of change that people have, they might change their label at will. Another fact of this theory, but no so attached to social reality is one of the manifestations of this theory, because of the idea of shaming, not because is not possible, but because is sometimes a motor to commit more crimes in certain contexts. The environmental theory has the possibility of treating crime as a situation with a specific context and circumstances that must be accomplish for the crime to be committed. The focus on the crime as a main subject allows this theory to be the bond for the combination of the other three theories, increasing the possibility of explanation and praxis that these theory have in total. These theoretical perspectives allow taking into account the elements of developmental theory, and use them together in the same explanations or theory. Of course in this conjunction of works, the aspects that restrain developmental theory must not be taken into account. The same goes for the labeling theory. Environmental theory has the possibility of being the connection between the individual perspective of crime in labeling and developmental theory, but at the same time it takes into account the idea of generality prescribed in both. Together with the perspective that environmental theory uses of situational context, crime becomes a definition with a lot of defined perspectives. Using the idea of label and the identity factor to set inside society, and as a representation to the outside society, the idea of crime explains one side of the individual behavior, by the representation that people has during a certain act. The environmental theory explains the event expressed as crime according to the material context in which people lives, but also making reference to another expression of behavioral crime conduct. Using some perspectives of the developmental theory, the factor explained before is part of a whole construction of life, providing a deeply analysis of a crime event, circumstance, conduct, behavior, context, social representation, and manifestation. Contexts and explanations The idea of the scientific revolutions explained at the beginning of the text, is to express one of the situation in which crime theory can be expressed more attached to explain reality. In case of the criminological theories, the perspectives are as many as a bunch. In the whole package of theories, the time has played a main role to develop each theory as the knowledge in crime situations and circumstances becomes wider. But there is a moment, and had happened before, that theory needs a new view and perspective. The citations and influences of the theories in the XIX are immersed in the theories of the XX, and now the contemporary theories are making improvements to explain by new paradigms the new circumstances that involve crime in our society. This, according to Kuhn’s idea, is the traditional process of making the scientific revolution. That is why is importance to pose a new circumstance that provokes a crisis in the criminological theory. Using these three theories may provide a great angle of perspective to analyze a concrete situation. But still the theories are short when it comes to practice. For example: the Mexican context. At first sight is a country like any other, but their main economic and political relations are with United States. The country has a first sight corruption; the police[11] are one of the main actors in these situations and are colluding with the narco[12]. The country is subject of constant violence, but the government is unable to solve the situation, because of the illegal trades and agreements that had surpassed the government power politically and economically. This is at macro-scale, but a micro-scale is almost the same, with the addition that is the poor people who gets involved in this violent context to have something to eat every day. So, how can these three theories make an approach to the context of Mexico? Evidently the crime is on one of the highest rates of Mexican history nowadays. But what is the work of the criminological theory when the established law steps aside and leaves the path to the everyday survival law? Criminological theory must be applied to the context in which it must[13]  be an explanation that requires a reaction from people. Criminological theory as it is right now, does not have the possibility of explaining the events that are happening in the world like Islamic State, Mexico’s violence, Ukraine war, and more. Criminological theory is being insufficient for the fast and changing environment in the world. The implications are every time wide in economy, politics, culture, etc. Using the actual theories to explain crime[14] may explain some aspects of reality, but recovering just the important aspects of each theory does not lead to a complete explanation and possibility of chang e of the real context. Being transdisciplinary is one of the new paradigms that criminological theory can use. Not closing the explanations of the criminal world to just the criminal theory. The possible revolution that criminology as a theoretical science can have is to be at the time of the context. References: Francis T. Cullen, Robert Agnew, Pamela Wilcox. Criminological theory: past to present. New York: Oxford university press, 2007. Kuhn, Thomas. Estructura de las recoluciones cientificas. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 2006. Paris, Jessica. Environmental criminolgy and crime prevention. n.d. http://legacy.usfsm.edu/academics/cas/capstone/2010-2011/criminology/paris-environmental criminology intel led policing.pdf?from=404. 29 09 2014. Plummer, Ken. Labeling theory. University of Essex, United Kingdom, 29 09 2014. http://www.sjsu.edu/people/james.lee/courses/soci152/s1/ajreading10labeling.pdf . 27 09 2014. [1] According to the criminological theory, this is focused on crime. [2] This is an implication that this theory has when is applied to explain crime. The results vary, because of personal behavior, situations, and social strains. Even, instead of reducing crime, these implications can even increase it. [3] Those who are consider criminals. [4] This does not mean that context is not taken into account. [5] The maintaining and safety control of urban environments may be a big influence to stop crimes. [6] There is a graphic that represents the main ages in which crime occur that set the age of 10 as the beginning and 20 when the young people stop committing crime. [7] Emphasize on social punishment to provoke shame. It focuses on the behavior on the offender. [8] According to the establishments of what normal is, and also if crime is considered as something abnormal. [9] Contextually, this is a big spectrum, but the political tendencies, economics, society and culture, in which crime is a subject of constant representation, are bigger than the idea of a nation. [10] Explained deeply in â€Å"Two concepts of social capital: Bourdieu vs. Putnam† By Martti Siisiasen, Department of Philosophy, Trinity College, Dublin Ireland. From: http://c.ymcdn.com/sites/www.istr.org/resource/resmgr/working_papers_dublin/siisiainen.pdf [11] The public force that most stop the crime and apprehend the offenders. [12] Production and commerce of drugs, and traffic of people. [13] The using of this word emphasizes a moral reaction against crime. This must be included as a factor that may change according to the context. [14] Under the look of a moral conception of good and evil.

Hucklebery Finn Literary Figures :: essays research papers

The Adventures of Huck Finn CHARACTER: Character Name  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Description  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Quote Huckleberry Finn  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A young outcast boy who is always forced to survive on his own due to lack of authority. He is quick-witted and able to make intelligent decisions, but is often influenced by his friend Tom.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Jim  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A black slave that belonged to Miss Watson but escaped after she threatened to sell him. Huck and him went off together on the river looking for the free states.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The king & the duke  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Fugitives that joined up with Huck and Jim on the raft. They posed themselves as a king and a duke and performed scandalous plays to rip people’s money off. They were later both tarred and feathered.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   DICTION:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The diction used in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is mostly informal and neutral. SYMBOLISM:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn has many important symbols throughout the novel. One major symbol is the raft that Huck and Jim travel on through a majority of the book. In Chapter 18, Huck states, â€Å"We said there warn’t no home like a raft, after all. Other places do seem so cramped up and smothery, but a raft don’t. You feel mighty free and easy and comfortable on a raft.† Huck said this after he and Jim escaped from the troublesome feud between the Grangerfords and the Sheperdsons. The raft represents to Huck an escape from the troublesome and sick society in the outside world. The raft also represents live itself as it floats along the river.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Along with the raft, the river represents the path of life and how it can turn in many unexpected ways and how obstacles can get in the way of things at any time. During Huck and Jim’s journey along the Mississippi, obstacles in the form of troublesome slave hunters and scandalous royalty constantly took them off course and led them on a temporary sidetrack. Once they are able to overcome the obstacles or outrun trouble, Huck and Jim were back on the river enjoying life. Like the river, life also has many obstacles that must be overcome before one can continue down the path. THEME:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is a novel about trusting what one believes and knows is morally right. When the king and the duke sell Jim, Huck writes a letter to the Widow telling her about the whereabouts of Jim. Before he sends it though, he tears it up because he realizes how close of friend Jim has become.

Ethical Issues in Social Work Essay example -- Papers

Ethical Issues in Social Work I will provide practical help for new social workers to help them understand and deal with ethical issues and dilemmas which they will face. There are many ethical issues which are important to social work, but I feel that these are all covered by the care value base. The care value base Was devised by the care sector consortium in 1992, this was so that the workers in health and social care had a common set of values and principles which they would all adhere to. It is important because for the first time the social care sector had a clear set of guidelines from which ethical judgements could be made. The care value base is divided into 5 elements - The care value base covers - Equality and Diversity - Rights and responsibilities - Confidentiality - Promoting anti Discrimination - Effective communication Equality and Diversity Carers must value diversity themselves before they can effectively care for the different races, religions and differently abled people they will come across in their caring profession. Diversity is where there are many different kinds of people living in a community together. This means that in a set environment there will be black, Asian, gay, straight, differently abled people living together in a community. Discriminatory prejustice must be able to be recognised by the carer, for example, if a woman is being discriminated against in a care home, or treated differently in a hospital setting, the carer must be able to recognise that this behaviour is happening, and inform a higher power, or go through the complaints procedu... ...es. The ethical issues surrounding this Act is who’s rights are more important, the right of the parent to have their child with them, or the right of the child to live happily and without fear of abuse. This also applies to schools The Data Protection Act of 1998 means that service users have a right to keep private information confidential, but it also means that they have a responsibly in relation to the rights of other service users. The confidentiality must be kept within certain borderlines, and can be broken when other service user’s rights come into conflict. Certain information may need to be passed to a senior member of staff when there is someone in danger. This relates to ethical issues as it is difficult to decide when confidential information should be shared, as described in my ethical dilemma above.

Integrated and Collaborative Working Essay

What is integrated and collaborative working and why is it so important in childhood practice? The numerous well-publicised child protection cases such as Baby P and Daniel Pelka have emphasized just what can happen when services fail to work collaboratively and this shows why integrated working and collaborative practice is vital and imperative. The outcomes of fatal accident enquiries, like the cases of the children mentioned, continually conclude that a lack of communication between agencies with regards to sharing of relevant information and concerns regarding vulnerable children are one factor which requires to be addressed. The idea behind multi-agency working is that children and families who may require additional assistance are supported effectively and efficiently, therefore minimising or even preventing any difficulties from arising. Children develop in different ways and achieve developmental stages at different rates therefore a diversity of skills and support from a ran ge of different professionals is required in order to successfully meet these needs. On 10th December 2008, the Scottish Government launched The Early Years Framework to highlight the importance of working in professional partnership to give children the best possible start in life. The Scottish Executive’s concern for social inclusion and desire to promote ‘joined up’ policies, an increased demand on services from service users and not to mention the focus on child-centeredness are just a few justifications for such a focus on and drive towards collaborative practice. The benefits of integrated working are enormous as all professionals implement a holistic approach, and working in partnership creates better quality services. Integrated working ensures early identification of any difficulties by efficient sharing of relevant information, thus ensuring that appropriate intervention can be delivered timely. Families also develop closer relationships with a variety of agencies throughout the stages of assessment/intervention resulting in better support and engagement of families, and subsequently the needs of the child are more likely to be met. Another benefit is that the more collaborative working that is carried out between agencies, the more knowledge is transferred between professionals allowing for a more well-informed and proficient team around the child. This could also potentially reduce the need for more specialised services. By working in a collaborative way it also allows for critical reflection allowing all agencies to participate in decision-making while refining their  knowledge. With that being said, we are faced with a number of barriers that can often make integrated working less than simple. These can include poor communication both within and between agencies, and to some degree a lack of uncertainties in roles and responsibilities, inconsistencies regarding legisla tion, confidentiality and the sharing of information. Funding streams are often a barrier to collaborative working. One which I can relate to in my workplace is little to no access to IT equipment and/or compatible systems which would facilitate sharing of information. Some research has been carried out in relation to personality traits within teams and Belbin’s team roles theory shows the importance of recognising the strengths and weaknesses of individuals utilizing the strengths of each person in order to create a productive and efficient team, a clearly beneficial factor in collaborative working. While utilizing the strengths, it is important to manage the weaknesses suggesting that an unbalanced team could just as likely become a barrier. The importance of collaborative working can be seen in the example of a Speech and Language Therapist (SLT). This professional works in close partnership with children and their families, not to mention other professionals. Their job is to assess children with speech, language and communica tion difficulties or those with difficulties eating, drinking or swallowing. Communication is an important part of child development which affects every other area of progression. SLT are an invaluable link between education and health as they are skilled at identifying potential underlying difficulties/disorders. There are many factors an SLT has to consider including the impact these difficulties have on the child’s life and the urgency of such a referral. Integrated working is crucial as professionals gain a full family history, thorough assessment of every aspect of the child’s life, and pull this together into a formulation about the child’s difficulties and how they are being maintained. If such a comprehensive assessment was not available then an SLT could potentially arrive at an inaccurate formulation of a child’s difficulties due to incomplete information which other agencies may hold. The significance of effective integrated working is clear in this case, as the barriers previously discussed can make the job of Speech and Language Therapists very difficult as an inaccurate formulation may result in serious implications for a child’s intervention. An Educational Psychologist is another professional  that heavily relies on effective integrated working. The purpose of these professionals is to work with children and young people who are having difficulties with achieving their learning potential. Gone are the days where the only rationale for such issues was innate condition of the child which required treating. Instead psychologists are considering the need for adjustments in certain external influences such as environment, curriculum and peers as well as internal factors like child resilience as possible solutions to such difficulties. This does not undermine the possibility of organic causes such as autism etc. Their role is vital in supporting children, families, and educators whereby children are not achieving their maximum level of educational attainment for whatever reason (be it social, emotional, familial, or academically) and educational psychologists must work with many different agencies in order to gain a full and clear assessment of all potential factors and causes. Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory explains how lives are affected by people and events around us, further evidence that psychologists have good reason to believe that certain difficulties children face are in fact to do with these external influences. Bronfenbrenner’s theory is based on five levels of social interaction and its effects. The first level, Microsystem is based on the most direct interactions. Family, peers, school, work or the area in which an individual lives. Mesosystem follows and includes the relationships between microsystems. Next is Exosystem which involves the connections with a social environment in which the individual doesn’t have direct interaction. Macrosystem is the influence of culture, religion, traditions and media. These differ and conflict in different countries. The fifth level Chronosystem consists of the significant events that occur in an individual’s life, such as getting married or divorced etc. Bronfenbrenner believed that the influence of environmental factors was paramount in shaping the development of children from childhood to adulthood. The Scottish Executive published ‘It’s everyone’s job to make sure I’m alright’ (2002). The focus of this child protection review was an audit of the practice of police, medical, nursing, social work, children’s reporter, and education staff concluding that everyone has a duty and role in safeguarding and ensuring the welfare of children. The audit was based on a sample of 188 cases which covered the range of possible concerns about children from early  identification of vulnerability to substantiated abuse or neglect (both of which are significantly detrimental to childhood development). Neglect and abuse can be deemed as the environmental influences suggested by Bronfenbrenner that manipulate a child’s progression. In many cases the audit found that children were not receiving the services they required and many could not access services such as health care if their parents/carers did not cooperate. This highlights the importance of integrated and collaborative practice and the need for sharing of information across agencies regarding concerns with vulnerable children. Good practice included the provision of help to parents and children as and when was needed, timely responses, early thought and preparation, and accurately assessing the source of the risk. In order to properly assess a childs risk, a multiagency approach is required in order to gain a comprehensive assessment of the child’s needs. Every professional involved in providing a service to children has a duty to ensure their safety and promote psychological wellbeing. In order to do so profe ssionals must share information when there are concerns about a child’s presentation in order to gain a comprehensive assessment of a child’s needs. Every Child Matters is a UK Government initiative for England and Wales launched in 2003, partly in response to the death of Victoria Climbie. It is one of the most important policy initiatives and development programmes in relation to children and children’s services. It has been the title of 3 Government papers, which lead to the Children Act 2004. The main aims of Every Child Matters are for every child, whatever their background or circumstances, to have the support they need to: stay safe, healthy, enjoy and achieve, economic wellbeing, and positive contribution. Each of these themes have a detailed framework attached whose outcomes require multiagency partnerships working together to achieve. Every Child Matters advocates that it is essential that all professionals working with children are aware of the contribution that could be made by their own and each other’s service and plan and deliver their work accordingly (Baker R 2009). Every Child Matters has been infl uential throughout the UK-Getting it Right for Every Child is the equivalent approach in Scotland. The Scottish Government recently published Getting It Right for Every Child  (GIRFEC), which was designed to create a consistent, child-centred approach within and across the agencies who are involved with children and young people. Getting it right for every child is being threaded through all existing policy, practice, strategy and legislation affecting children, young people and their families. GIRFEC uses the Wellbeing Wheel (Appendix 1) or the SHANARRI indicators as they’re often referred to, in order to create a consistent way for professionals in multi-agencies to assess a child’s development and general wellbeing. SHANARRI is an acronym for the eight indicators (Safe, Healthy, Achieving, Nurtured, Active, Respected, Responsible, Included) used to make the evaluation of a child’s welfare in order to help them develop their full potential. It is important that everyone is assessing the same aspects of a child’s wellbeing using their own unique professional training and skills by using these indicators as guidance. This allows all agencies involved to have the same shared understanding of a child’s needs and the support they require. The Scottish Government values the purpose of collaborative working and in order to do so effectively, there must be certain legislation inaugurated. The Children (Scotland) Act 1995 is a child-centred piece of legislation that outlines the provisions offered to children and families and the duties of the local authorities to children’s wellbeing regarding support, safeguarding and intervention. The act emphasizes the importance of the child’s welfare and gives the child the right to have their views considered, when key decisions are being made about their life, incorporating UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. It is law that all agencies must adhere to th is act when working with children and families requiring additional needs, ensuing successful multi-agency working. The Regulation of Care (Scotland) Act 2001 was established to create regulations to which all social care services must adhere to in order to improve and maintain a high quality of care, otherwise they are no longer permitted to provide a service. With Care Inspectorate, the regulatory body ensuring that all care services are following the National Care Standards set by the Scottish Government, it’s easy to see how encouraging everyone to offer the same high quality of care can support collaborative working by sharing knowledge, skills and practice. â€Å"A well-qualified, professional workforce is the most important factor in delivering the quality of services that will give children the best possible  start in life.† (QAA Scotland) The Benchmark Statements for Childhood Practice outlines the expectations from SSSC and ensures that lead practitioners in childcare settings are qualified to high standard and competent in working collaboratively with parents, families a nd other agencies. As previously discussed, when agencies do not work collaboratively there can be devasting impacts which in extreme cases can contribute to fatality which is highlighted by the Victoria Climbie Inquiry Report, 2002-3. Victoria Climbie died in the intensive care unit of St Mary’s Hospital Paddington in February 2000, aged 8 years old. Her death was caused by multiple injuries arising from months of ill-treatment and abuse by her great-aunt and her partner. Victoria’s death led to a public enquiry and produced major changes in child protection policies. One of the recommendations from the fatal accident enquiry was that society should be aiming to ensure that there are systems in place which detect what is happening at an early stage so as to be able to intervene successfully to protect the child. This tragically did not happen for Victoria. She was failed comprehensively by all the services she was known to and who should have ultimately protected her. Despite repeated contacts with different services, no proper assessment was ever undertaken, and no more was known about Victoria when she died than was known about her the day after she arrived in the country. The very fact that her case was closed by Haringey Social Services the day she died points to the scale of failure. So too does the fact that the authorities charged with her care almost without exception failed to talk to Victoria directly, instead addressing their concerns to those responsible ultimately for her death. Peter Connelly (also known as the case of baby P) was a 17month old baby who died in London after suffering over 50 injuries in an 8month time period, during which time he was repeatedly seen by Haringey Children’s Services and NHS health professionals. The case caused shock and concern partly because of the magnitude of Peter’s injuries, and partly because Peter had lived in the borough of Haringey, under the same child care authorities that had already failed 10 years earlier in the case of Victoria Climbe which had, as previously stated, led to a public enquiry resulting in measures being put in place in an effort to prevent similar cases happening. The child protection services of Haringey and other agencies were widely criticised. Following the conviction, 3 enquiries and a nationwide review of social service care were launched. Over the course of months, Peter was admitted to hospital with a range of injuries including bruising, scratches and swelling to the head. The serious case review concluded that there were instances of mishandling by officials, missed and delayed meetings, miscommunication among officials, and a failure to follow through with decisions related to the child’s safety. Parental involvement is high on the Scottish Government’s expectations and working within a community nursery run by a committee of parents requires a great deal of collaborative working in order for the nursery to run efficiently and effectively. Finding a balance of what parents want, what children need, while embracing the Curriculum for Excellence requires a great deal of expedient communication. It requires successful sharing of knowledge and skills between experienced parents and qualified practitioners. The most productive committee would ideally be influenced by Belbin’s team role theory, however finding volunteers to be on such a committee can be difficult. Working collaboratively with agencies such a Visual Screening and Oral Health can have tremendous benefits to children’s wellbeing, is essential in promoting a healthy lifestyle and can offer preventative interventions. Working with other agencies such as Speech and Language Therapists and Educational Psychologists requires a great deal of integrated and collaborative working also and with the introduction of standardised referral forms has helped to establish consistency in information gathering which is a step towards more collaborative working, however working in such a small nursery, communications with these agencies can be infrequent and having such little experience dealing with these agencies, st aff can sometimes lack confidence and knowledge how to fill out paperwork and follow procedures. A suggestion would be to offer more in-house training regarding these procedures to ensure that when issues do arise staff feel competent in dealing with these situations. The importance of transitions for children going to school seems to be high on the local authorities’ agenda. There are many initiatives that would be highly beneficial to children but trying to obtain the involvement of other nurseries can sometimes be difficult. Poor communication and incapability to participate can be an obstacle often hard to overcome due to  other establishments’ finances, staffing issues and in some cases the unwillingness to take part. Attending liaison meetings with other nurseries to share knowledge, ideas and information is a great source of collaborative practice, but again this requires the willingness to be involved. One of the biggest barriers in collaborative working is poor communication. It is everyone’s role to ensure that as much information is shared with all agencies involved, the importance of this cannot be stressed enough. How little knowledge some professionals have regarding the roles of others can also be a hindrance. In order to improve collaborative working an increased awareness of the roles and responsibilities of other agencies is imperative. Reference List A Guide to GIRFEC, Scottish Government, 2013 Baker R, 2009, Making Sense of Every Child Matters – Multi-professional Practice Guidance, Policy Press Early Years Framework, Scottish government, Edinburgh, 2008 Every Child Matters, Sept 2003. www.everychildmatters.gov.uk House of Commons Health Committee: The Victoria Climbie Inquiry Report, 2002-3 It’s everyone’s job to make sure I’m alright, Report of the child protection audit and review. Scottish Government, 2002 The Case of Child A. Haringey council, 2008, 11-12 The Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education, The Standard for Childhood Practice, 2007, Linney Direct, Mansfield The Structure of Belbin’s Team Roles. Fisher et al, 1998, Journal of Occupational and Organisational psychology, 71, 283-288